Kernel or driver software installed on a Guest VM may post improper commands to the GPU Firmware to exploit a TOCTOU race condition and trigger a read and/or write of data outside the allotted memory escaping the virtual machine.
Software installed and run as a non-privileged user may conduct improper GPU system calls to gain write permissions to memory buffers exported as read-only.
This is caused by improper handling of the memory protections for the buffer resource.